We will have a brief look at the trade routes
running through northwest India. We will also see their importance for
contributing to the Indian Economy, and culture as well as how some of these routes
were used for invasions, causing adverse and positive effects on the
socio-political and cultural structure of our country.
The major trade route running through north
India is famous as Uttarapatha, a northern high road, that followed along the River Ganges, crossed the Indo-Gangetic
watershed, ran through the Punjab to Taxila (Gandhara) and
further toward Kabul to Bactria in Central
Asia. The
eastern terminus of the Uttarapatha was the port city located at the
mouth of the Ganga river in West Bengal. This route became
increasingly important due to increasing maritime contacts with the seaports on
the eastern coast of India during the Maurya rule. 1
Taxila, the capital of the Gandhar region and
located on Uttarapath, were a major trade center that was located in the
westernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. The route from Taxila would
reach Kabul through the Khyber Pass. From Taxila the route branched towards
Gilgit and from there to Central Asia. Both major routes, branching at Taxila, ultimately met with the main Silk route.
Traveling further towards Afghanistan or central
Asia the Hindu Kush range had to be crossed through the difficult mountain
passes. Bolan and Khyber passes were highly used not only for trade activities
but war campaigns as well. In a way, it was a Gate Way to India and was used
from ancient times by nomads, aggressors, and traders. The cultural exchange
via these passes has been well recorded in history. Historically attested first
migration to India via Bolan Pass was of the Vedic Aryans who sought asylum in
India, spread Vedic religion, and gradually occupied the highest position in
Indian society. 2
Apart from these two passes, there are other
important Dorah and Broghil mountain passes which are located just by the
Durand line. The Dorah Pass crosses the Hindukush and connects with northern
Afghanistan. The historic Broghil pass reached the Wakhan District of Afghanistan.
These both passes are situated in the Gilgit region. Gilgit falls in
Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.
Since prehistoric times, India has been connected with
the rest of the world through these passes.
Bolan Pass is the southern counterpart of Khyber
Pass. Both passes have been used by the traders and invaders extensively
over comparatively difficult Dorah and Broghil passes.
Bolan Pass is in the Toba
Kakar range,
which lies south of the Hindu
Kush mountain
ranges. Bolan Pass is described as a pass over a lofty range that is full of
ravines and gorges. The mountain ranges of the Bolan Pass are
the southern geographic border between the Indian
plate and
the Iranian plateau. The southern point of the pass, Near Dhadar, is
the western bound of the Indus
Valley and
is seen as a great strategic point between Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and
the Arabian Sea.
Bolan Pass has been described by a British
officer belonging to the Bengal Artillery in the 19th century
as-
"The road through this pass leads, with few
and rare exceptions, along what is the bed of a mountain-torrent, when filled
by the melting of the snows or heavy rains, and is composed of loose shingly
gravel, that recedes from under your feet, and is very difficult for draught
camels to get on well.
It is infested by the Kakur tribe, who live by
robbery; and the hills sometimes close in upon the road, which is filled up by
the bed of the stream, running through rocky chasms, upwards of a hundred feet
high, from the top of which the robbers assail the travellers with stones; and
were they as bold as they are cruel and perfidious, they might hold the place
against all comers. Many spots were pointed out to me by the guides I had with
me, as signalised by acts of violence, several European officers having lost
their baggage during our occupation of the country. Should there be rain in the
higher parts of the mountains, the stream at times comes down in an almost
perpendicular volume, without warning, and sweeping all before it, as a friend
of mine experienced, when he saw a party of men, horses, and camels, and all
his property, borne down by it; when himself and some few men with him escaped
by climbing up the nearly perpendicular side of the hill. About thirty-seven
men were washed away upon that occasion." 3
This description is well enough to understand how
difficult was the pass and what dangers the traders and travelers would have to
encounter while moving through the Pass.
Even so, the traders venturing
to south Afghanistan crossed this Pass since Indus times. According to Jane McIntosh, the earliest trade
began in 7000 BC with Iran and Mesopotamia. The trade route was used for the
import of unfinished Lapiz Lazuli that passed through the Kachi plain via Bolan
Pass to Quetta and Mundigak, an Indus trade colony located near Kandahar.
Mehrgarh site is located near Bolan Pass that served as important production
center during Indus times. 4
Here it joined with a major trade route to
southern Turkmenia. The route had linked the people of Indo-Iranian borderlands
since 7000 BC. Finished goods like Lead and copper were exported from India to
Iran.
Indus people imported raw minerals to process
them further to make beautiful ornaments. The finished good was again exported
to central and western Asia via land and sea routes. Besides export many useful
articles used to be imported. The trade through the hostile and difficult
regions must have posed many dangers to the traders still they ventured far off
regions risking their lives because the rewards were high.
For instance, a Harappan trading colony was
established in Shortughai. It was close to the region of northern Afghanistan
and produced lapis lazuli. It became a trade junction so that the Indus
traders could exchange goods with Central Asian and West Asian traders. The raw
material of lapiz was transported back to the Indus towns to make the finished
products. This arrangement served well.5
Sutkagendor on the Makran Sea coast appears to
have been established as an anchorage for ships. Other Harappan ports were
scattered throughout the coastal regions of Sindh and Gujarat. The
maritime routes invented by the Indus people helped in the growth of the
economy.
The North Western route allowed the merchants
and rulers of Harappa to control the supplies of valuable stones like lapis
lazuli or jade.
Similarly, the Deodar timber beams used as
ceilings in many Harappan homes were imported from the higher Himalayan
regions.
Ancient Indian trade routes existed between the
Harappans and the modern Mesopotamian towns. According to experts, the
Mesopotamians called the Harappan society ‘Meluhha’. Kings of Mesopotamia boast
that ships from Meluhha carried lapis lazuli, carnelian, ivory, and gold to
their cities. Mesopotamia confirms the discovery of seals with the Harappan
script in these references. Indus traders had established their colony at city
of Guabba in Sumer. 6
In Mesopotamian royal tombs, carnelian beads and
Harappan shankh shells have been discovered. The discovery of a dockyard in
Lothal is a significant sign of the Harappans' extensive commerce
network.
Many seals have been unearthed. These were used
over packed goods at Lothal. The Harappan settlements used seals for trade.
Additionally, Persian Gulf-born dolphins have been discovered at Lothal,
showing their imports were also involved.
The arrival of the city suggested radical
changes. Because of the demand created by the urban elite, cities served as the
location for craft specialization. These elites also acquired the basic raw
materials that the artisans required.
In addition to West Asia, the Harappans also
conducted business in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Tin from Central Asia and
lapis lazuli from Afghanistan were both highly prized. Perhaps this commerce
was made more accessible by establishing Shortugai trading colony in
Afghanistan.
The trade usually took place via the Bolan Pass.
Khyber Pass, though important, it seems to have been mostly used for invasions
or military campaigns. The Khyber Pass became prominent in trade activity only
during the period of Emperor Kanishka.
Bolan
Pass is situated in Baluchistan, which now is a province of Pakistan. From 305
to 303 BC, historically, Indian Emperor Chandragupta Maurya used this pass for
military expeditions. Seleucus Nicator (I) was the ruler of the Seleucid Empire.
Alexander was eager to regain the territories he had lost. He had political
dominance over Afghanistan. Chandragupta defeated Seleucus in a battle. In the
treaty concluded at that time, Chandragupta not only took over the province of
Sindh but also got a large area of southern Afghanistan including the Hindu
Kush Mountains. 7
In
the subsequent treaty, he married Seleucus' daughter Helena and presented
Seleucus with 500 elephants. With this treaty, Chandragupta's empire was
expanded to Afghanistan. Chandragupta introduced Hindu and Jain cultures to
Afghanistan.
Later,
Emperor Ashoka expanded his empire and gained control over northern
Afghanistan, and brought the province of Balkh under his empire. During this
period Buddhism also gained dominance over Afghanistan. Gandhari Prakrit
language became an important religious medium of expression. Numerous Buddha
Viharas and huge Buddha images were also created in Afghanistan, especially in
the Bamiyan area.
The Arab invader Muhammad Qasim marched to Sindh via Bolan Pass
and defeated King Dahir in 711 AD. His main intention was to take control of
the trade routes and the seaport of Debal located on Makran shores. From this
port, the trade was conducted with Sri Lanka and Arab
countries. Med-Baloch Sea pirates of Debal used to plunder the loaded
ships. Thus, the sea route had become dangerous. To gain control over the
pirates Dahir was unsuccessful. Arab wanted a better share in the trade
without any interruption from the pirates. The way land routes used to be always
in the shadow of vicious robbers; sea routes were no exception.
(Remains of Debal Port)
Later, the Emperor of Kashmir Lalitaditya Muktapida defeated Arab
Governor Tamim and forced him to flee. In 731 AD Lalitaditya chased him via
Bolan Pass to Afghanistan and killed him in a skirmish. Lalitaditya gained
control over the south and North Afghanistan and marched over to Bactria. He
forced Arabs out and gained control over the main silk route running through
Central Asia. While coming back he took a different route and marching through
the Mintaka pass, defeated the Shahi rulers of Gilgit, Baltistan, and Tibetan
forces located at Ladakh. Thus he gained control over the trade routes that
previously were controlled by the Arabs and Tibetans.
In 1748, another noted invasion was by the Afghan king Ahmad Shah Durrani who invaded India by using the Bolan Pass in addition
to the traditional Khyber Pass route. The Durrani capital Kandahar was located
nearby the pass, which gave them quick access to Indian lands.
Threatened by a possible Russian invasion of South Asia via
the Khyber and Bolān Passes, In 1837, a British envoy was
sent to Kabul to gain the support of the Emir, Dost Mohammed. In February 1839 during the First Anglo-Afghan War, the British
Army under Sir John Keane took 12,000 men through the Bolān Pass and
entered Qandahar, which the Afghan Princes had abandoned; from there they would go
on to attack and overthrow Ghazni.
However, though there were interruptions in trading activity
through the Pass, the trade continued undeterred, since Indus times. It is
believed that the ancient city Mundigak which was located near Kandahar was a
major trade center of ancient times. Various layers, ranging from 4000 BC to 2400
BC, shows contacts of this city with central Asia, west Asia, and the Indus
Valley.
In excavations, it was found that Mundigak has some material
related to the Indus Valley civilization. This material consists in part of ceramic
figurines of snakes and humped bulls, and other items, similar to those found
at other Indus Valley sites. 8
Pottery found at Mundigak had a number of similarities with such
material found at Kot Diji. This material shows up at the earliest layer of Kot
Diji, an Indus site.
Khyber Pass is located in the Khyber Pakhtunwa province of
Pakistan. This pass was part of the ancient Silk Road because the major trade
center, Bactria was quite close to this Pass. This also was a strategic choke
point for various states that controlled this Pass.
Most of the invasions also have taken place through this
pass. Historical invasions of the Indian subcontinent, such as of Cyrus, Darius
I, Scythians, Huns,
Alexander, Genghis Khan, and later Mongols. However, every ruler was interested in
controlling the trade routes. In the first century AD, during the Kanishka
period, this route became more prominent. Since then Khyber Pass became a
critical part of the Silk
Road, a major trade route
from East Asia to Europe.
The Parthian
Empire fought for control
of Passes such as this to profit from the trade in silk, jade, and other
luxuries moving from China to Western Asia and Europe. Through the Khyber
Pass, Gandhara, in
present-day Pakistan, became a regional center of trade connecting Bagram in
Afghanistan to Taxila in India, adding Indian luxury goods such as
ivory, pepper, and textiles to the Silk Road commerce.
Among the Muslim invasions of the Indian subcontinent through the Khyber Pass were Mahmud
Ghaznavi, Muhammad
Ghori, and the Turkic
Mongols. Finally, Sikhs under Ranajit Singh captured
the Khyber Pass in 1834. The Sikh general Hari Singh
Nalwa manned the Khyber Pass for years.
Recently, during the War in Afghanistan, the Khyber Pass was a major route for
resupplying military armament and food to NATO forces in the Afghan theater of conflict
since the US started the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. Almost 80 percent of
the NATO and US supplies that were brought in by road were transported through
the Khyber Pass. 9
Dorah Pass connects the Badakshan province of Afghanistan. This
pass is at an elevation of 14000 feet and is located near the Durand Line border.
Chitral, being on the border of northern Afghanistan, was connected to the Western world through the Dorah Pass. Chitral has been a historically neglected region though there was considerable traffic from Badakshan (Northeastern Afghanistan) through the Dorah Pass (in Khyber Pakhtunva), across southern Chitral, and through the Lowarai Pass to reach the ancient Buddhist monasteries in Swat valley. The Dorah Pass is one of the four major mountain passes that enter Chitral.
The others are the Broghol Pass from the Wakhan District of Badakhshan, Afghanistan, Shandur Top from Gilgit, and Lowari Top from the Upper Dir District. Although little is known of the medieval history of the area, Chitral, in the 4th to 10th century was subject to the king of Kabul. In the 10th to 16th centuries, Chitral became a princely state under the rule of a dynasty of mehtars.
Besides other caravan trades, Slave trading was the principal source of income for the rulers of Chitral and neighboring Gizar and Yasin. The slaves were supplied particularly to Badaḵshan and southern Kashmir. From the early 13th to 19th century and the beginning of the “Great Game”, the geopolitical rivalry between the Russians and the British in Central and Inner Asia, Chitral was a focal point for Indian imperial attention.
Dorah Pass became important during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan because the Soviets were unable to stop the flow of arms and men back and forth across the pass. Almost the entire Munji-speaking population of Afghanistan fled across the border to Chitral during the War in Afghanistan. Dorah Pass is situated in the Pamir, a high plateau sometimes called "The roof of the world" that joins Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and China.
Today
access to the Chitral district is through the Lowarai pass, which is, however,
closed by winter snows. A track for vehicles with four-wheel drive links Mastuj
district with Gilgit through the Shandur pass. The trading traffic from
Northern Afghanistan to Gilgit used this route as well making Gilgit a
trade junction.
The
importance of these trade routes was recognized by the Muslim rulers like
Shershah Suri and Mogals who tried to control these trade routes to bring in
revenue against exports in the form of bullion. These were the routes that were
used by Nadershah and Ahmadshah Durrani to attack the Mughal empire and empty
their treasure. Lakhs of Indian men and women were made slaves and were driven
to Afghanistan to throw them into a crevasse of misery.
It can be seen from above that the routes passing through the northwest have contributed immensely to trade and commerce since Indus times. The Indian religions spread out through these Passes and in turn, other religions too entered India. The cultural exchange led to the emergence of Gandharan art during the Kushan period. The Gandhari Prakrit spread to Central Asia through these routes. World-famous travelers, scholars, and monks visited India in search of knowledge. The trade routes have contributed to the enhancement of global knowledge and culture.
·
Ref.-
1. "Sites
along the Uttarapath, Badshahi Sadak, Sadak-e-Azam, Grand Trunk Road". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
2.
Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic
Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Oxford University Press.
3.
"The Bolan Pass." — Extract
of a letter from an Officer of the Bengal Artillery, dated Camp at
"Quetra," or, more properly, "Shawl Kot," in Khorasan, 2
December 1841. JRGS, Vol. 12 (1842), pp. 109–110.
4.
Kuzmina EE, Mair VH (2008) The
Prehistory of the Silk Road. Philadelphia: Univ. Pennsylvania Press.
5.
McIntosh, Jane
(2005). Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO. p. 135.
6.
Vermaak, Fanie
(2008). "Guabba,
the Meluhhan village in Mesopotamia". Journal
for Semitics. 17/2: 454–471.
7.
Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1988) [first published in 1966], Chandragupta
Maurya and his times (4th ed.).
8.
McIntosh, Jane. (2008)
The Ancient Indus Valley, New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. Page 86.
9.
Karin Brulliard
(October 9, 2010). "Pakistan
reopens border to NATO supply trucks".
Washington Post Foreign Service. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011.
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