Indus trade colonies in Sumer, Central Asia and North Afghanistan

Besides the trade routes, the Indus traders had established trading colonies in foreign regions which is evident from the colonies of Indians in Central Asia and Mesopotamia. It is clear now that a Harappan settlement of Shortugai, excavated in 1976, in Northern Afghanistan, served as a trading station which was established around 2000 BC on the banks of the Amu Darya (Oxus) River where the mines of Lapiz lazuli were situated. This colony facilitated trade with Central Asia (Balkh, Turkestan, Uzbekistan, Kirgizstan, etc.) towards east and Mesopotamia, the lands of Tigris and the Euphrates.

Also, the records of Sumer (Mesopotamia) from about 2350 BC refer to the trade with Meluha (identified as the ancient name of the Indus region) and the same records speak about the intermediate trading stations called Dilmun (Identified with Bahrain ) and Makan/Magan (Identified with Oman-UAE) which lay between Mesopotamia and Meluha. The goods sold by the Indus traders are mentioned in an inscription belonging to Gudea of Lagash (2144-2124 BC), ruler of southern Mesopotamia as the Meluhans came to Sumer to sell gold dust, carnelian, etc. In another inscription, he mentions his procurement of blocks of lapis lazuli and bright carnelian from Meluha.

It is considered Shortugai to be the northernmost settlement of the Indus Valley Civilization and it does not miss any standard characteristics of the Harappan cultural complex that includes carnelian and lapis lazuli beads, bronze objects, and terracotta figurines. Along with the other finds are one seal with a short inscription and a rhinoceros motif, clay models of cattle with carts and painted pottery with Harappan designs, jars, beakers, bronze objects, gold pieces, lapis lazuli beads, drill heads, shell bangles, etc. are other findings. Square seals with animal motifs and script confirm this as a site belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization (not just having contact with IVC). Bricks used in construction too had typical Harappan measurements.

Like the Shortugai settlement of north Afghanistan, the Indus people appear to have established a colony in southern Sumer. Numerous inscriptions belonging to the UR III period (2200-2100 BC) mention the Meluhan settlement in south Sumer near the State of Girsu. The location of the settlement has been tentatively identified with the city of Guabba. The references to “large boats” in Guabba suggest that it may have functioned as a trading colony that initially had direct contact with Meluha.

There are instances of Meluha traders taking an active part in local politics, most probably to seek trade concessions and facilities.

A clay tablet bearing the royal inscription of Naram-Sin (2254-2218 BCE) of Akkad lists the rebel kings to his rule and states the defeat of rebel from Meluha in the following words- “(..) ibra, man of Melukha…" (The Schoyen Collection, Manuscript no. 2814). From Akkadian records, it appears that Naram-Sin (Son of Sargon) had to face rebellion as many kings refused to pay tribute to him when he came to power. It seems the traders of Meluha settled in Sumer or the king of Meluha itself rejected the authority of Naram-Sin. To establish his authority he was forced to wage wars against the rebels. Whether “…ibra” refers to the surviving letters of the personal name or something else is unknown. However, the revolt was crushed after defeating them.

Also, according to some accounts of the Akkadian Emperor Rimush, he fought against the troops of Meluha, in the area of Elam. The inscription of Rimush reads as follows- "Rimush, the king of the world, in the battle over Abalgamash, king of Parahshum, was victorious. And Zahara and Elam and Gupin and Meluḫḫa within Paraḫshum assembled for battle, but he (Rimush) was victorious and struck down 16,212 men and took 4,216 captives….”

The Roman geographer, mathematician, and astronomer, Ptolemy, wrote of a city called ‘Indikomandana’, (a city of Indians) located north of the Amu-Darya in present-day Uzbekistan (probably Termez).

From the Greek sources, we get an indication that other large religious and commercial colonies of Indians also existed in presently known as Turkmenistan and western Kazakhstan.

-Sanjay Sonawani

This is how Ladakh got annexed to India!

Lalitaditya the Great had annexed Gilgit-Baltistan and Ladakh to Kashmir in the 8th century AD. However, these parts soon became independent and remained so till 1834.

After the conquest of Ladakh in 1834, Kashmiri Commander Zorawar Singh annexed Gilgit-Baltistan to Kashmir in 1840.

After subjugating Ladakh, Dogra general Zorawar Singh immediately wanted to invade the Chinese Turkestan. Despite British pressure, all the area up to Shahidulla was taken in control by the Dogras, as the Chinese Turkestan then viewed the Kunlun mountains as its southern border.

His military campaign against Gilgit-Baltistan began in November 1839. In 1840, Skardu was captured by him and the ruler Ahmad Shah was forced to join him to raid Gilgit.

The primary objective behind the campaign was to control and monopolize the trade of Pashmina wool and Kashmiri shawls. and trade routes. The longest route from Lahore to Petersburg was going through Kashmir and Ladakh. The revenue coming from the trade was significant and a major source of the treasury.

Zorawar Singh after conquering Gilgit Baltistan and expanding Kashmir borders till Shahidulla (Central Asia) soon undertook the Tibet campaign in 1842. Tibet was then suzerainty of China.

Zorawar Singh, using efficient military tactics had made three divisions of his army march on his destinations.

His two divisions plundered Hanle and Tashigang and the third division, commanded by Zorawar Singh, captured Rudok, and when all three divisions joined together he attacked Gartok, a major trade center. Before the reinforcement could arrive from Lhasa, Zorawar Singh marched on Taklakot near Nepal Border.

After initial successes, Zorawar Singh was defeated by Tibet at Minsar owing to the worsened weather. In this war, Singh was killed. Tibetans advanced towards Leh but Maharaja Gulab Singh sent reinforcement under command of Jawahir Singh.

The subsequent battle took place with Tibetans near Leh in which Tibetan armies were decisively defeated which led to the treaty of Chushul, 1842.

In short, credit goes to Maharaja Gulab Singh and Commander Zorawar Singh for annexing Ladakh, a vast territory, to Kashmir (India).

असूर परशुरामाचे रहस्य!

 

असूर परशुरामाचे रहस्य!