Ancient Trade routes through North-West India

 

We will have a brief look at the trade routes running through northwest India. We will also see their importance for contributing to the Indian Economy, and culture as well as how some of these routes were used for invasions, causing adverse and positive effects on the socio-political and cultural structure of our country.
The major trade route running through north India is famous as Uttarapatha, a northern high road, that followed along the River Ganges, crossed the Indo-Gangetic watershed, ran through the Punjab to Taxila (Gandhara) and further toward Kabul to Bactria in Central Asia. The eastern terminus of the Uttarapatha was the port city located at the mouth of the Ganga river in West Bengal. This route became increasingly important due to increasing maritime contacts with the seaports on the eastern coast of India during the Maurya rule. ¹
 

Taxila, the capital of the Gandhar region and located on Uttarapath, were a major trade center that was located in the westernmost region of the Indian subcontinent. The route from Taxila would reach Kabul through the Khyber Pass. From Taxila the route branched towards Gilgit and from there to Central Asia. Both major routes, branching at Taxila, ultimately met with the main Silk route.

Traveling further towards Afghanistan or central Asia the Hindu Kush range had to be crossed through the difficult mountain passes. Bolan and Khyber passes were highly used not only for trade activities but war campaigns as well. In a way, it was a Gate Way to India and was used from ancient times by nomads, aggressors, and traders. The cultural exchange via these passes has been well recorded in history. Historically attested first migration to India via Bolan Pass was of the Vedic Aryans who sought asylum in India, spread Vedic religion, and gradually occupied the highest position in Indian society. ² 

Apart from these two passes, there are other important Dorah and Broghil mountain passes which are located just by the Durand line. The Dorah Pass crosses the Hindukush and connects with northern Afghanistan. The historic Broghil pass reached the Wakhan District of Afghanistan. These both passes are situated in the Gilgit region. Gilgit falls in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.

Since prehistoric times, India has been connected with the rest of the world through these passes.  

Bolan Pass is the southern counterpart of Khyber Pass. Both passes have been used by the traders and invaders extensively over comparatively difficult Dorah and Broghil passes.

Bolan Pass is in the Toba Kakar range, which lies south of the Hindu Kush mountain ranges. Bolan Pass is described as a pass over a lofty range that is full of ravines and gorges. The mountain ranges of the Bolan Pass are the southern geographic border between the Indian plate and the Iranian plateau. The southern point of the pass, Near Dhadar, is the western bound of the Indus Valley and is seen as a great strategic point between Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and the Arabian Sea.

Bolan Pass has been described by a British officer belonging to the Bengal Artillery in the 19^th century as-

"The road through this pass leads, with few and rare exceptions, along what is the bed of a mountain-torrent, when filled by the melting of the snows or heavy rains, and is composed of loose shingly gravel, that recedes from under your feet, and is very difficult for draught camels to get on well.

It is infested by the Kakur tribe, who live by robbery; and the hills sometimes close in upon the road, which is filled up by the bed of the stream, running through rocky chasms, upwards of a hundred feet high, from the top of which the robbers assail the travellers with stones; and were they as bold as they are cruel and perfidious, they might hold the place against all comers. Many spots were pointed out to me by the guides I had with me, as signalised by acts of violence, several European officers having lost their baggage during our occupation of the country. Should there be rain in the higher parts of the mountains, the stream at times comes down in an almost perpendicular volume, without warning, and sweeping all before it, as a friend of mine experienced, when he saw a party of men, horses, and camels, and all his property, borne down by it; when himself and some few men with him escaped by climbing up the nearly perpendicular side of the hill. About thirty-seven men were washed away upon that occasion."  ³

This description is well enough to understand how difficult was the pass and what dangers the traders and travelers would have to encounter while moving through the Pass.

Even so, the traders venturing to south Afghanistan crossed this Pass since Indus times. According to Jane McIntosh, the earliest trade began in 7000 BC with Iran and Mesopotamia. The trade route was used for the import of unfinished Lapiz Lazuli that passed through the Kachi plain via Bolan Pass to Quetta and Mundigak, an Indus trade colony located near Kandahar. Mehrgarh site is located near Bolan Pass that served as important production center during Indus times. ⁴

 Here it joined with a major trade route to southern Turkmenia. The route had linked the people of Indo-Iranian borderlands since 7000 BC. Finished goods like Lead and copper were exported from India to Iran.

Indus people imported raw minerals to process them further to make beautiful ornaments. The finished good was again exported to central and western Asia via land and sea routes. Besides export many useful articles used to be imported. The trade through the hostile and difficult regions must have posed many dangers to the traders still they ventured far off regions risking their lives because the rewards were high.

For instance, a Harappan trading colony was established in Shortughai. It was close to the region of northern Afghanistan and produced lapis lazuli. It became a trade junction so that the Indus traders could exchange goods with Central Asian and West Asian traders. The raw material of lapiz was transported back to the Indus towns to make the finished products. This arrangement served well.⁵

Sutkagendor on the Makran Sea coast appears to have been established as an anchorage for ships. Other Harappan ports were scattered throughout the coastal regions of Sindh and Gujarat. The maritime routes invented by the Indus people helped in the growth of the economy.

The North Western route allowed the merchants and rulers of Harappa to control the supplies of valuable stones like lapis lazuli or jade. 

Similarly, the Deodar timber beams used as ceilings in many Harappan homes were imported from the higher Himalayan regions.

Ancient Indian trade routes existed between the Harappans and the modern Mesopotamian towns. According to experts, the Mesopotamians called the Harappan society ‘Meluhha’. Kings of Mesopotamia boast that ships from Meluhha carried lapis lazuli, carnelian, ivory, and gold to their cities. Mesopotamia confirms the discovery of seals with the Harappan script in these references. Indus traders had established their colony at city of Guabba in Sumer. ⁶

In Mesopotamian royal tombs, carnelian beads and Harappan shankh shells have been discovered. The discovery of a dockyard in Lothal is a significant sign of the Harappans' extensive commerce network. 

Many seals have been unearthed. These were used over packed goods at Lothal. The Harappan settlements used seals for trade. Additionally, Persian Gulf-born dolphins have been discovered at Lothal, showing their imports were also involved.

The arrival of the city suggested radical changes. Because of the demand created by the urban elite, cities served as the location for craft specialization. These elites also acquired the basic raw materials that the artisans required.

In addition to West Asia, the Harappans also conducted business in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Tin from Central Asia and lapis lazuli from Afghanistan were both highly prized. Perhaps this commerce was made more accessible by establishing Shortugai trading colony in Afghanistan. 

 

The trade usually took place via the Bolan Pass. Khyber Pass, though important, it seems to have been mostly used for invasions or military campaigns. The Khyber Pass became prominent in trade activity only during the period of Emperor Kanishka.

Bolan Pass is situated in Baluchistan, which now is a province of Pakistan. From 305 to 303 BC, historically, Indian Emperor Chandragupta Maurya used this pass for military expeditions. Seleucus Nicator (I) was the ruler of the Seleucid Empire. Alexander was eager to regain the territories he had lost. He had political dominance over Afghanistan. Chandragupta defeated Seleucus in a battle. In the treaty concluded at that time, Chandragupta not only took over the province of Sindh but also got a large area of southern Afghanistan including the Hindu Kush Mountains. ⁷

In the subsequent treaty, he married Seleucus' daughter Helena and presented Seleucus with 500 elephants. With this treaty, Chandragupta's empire was expanded to Afghanistan. Chandragupta introduced Hindu and Jain cultures to Afghanistan.

Later, Emperor Ashoka expanded his empire and gained control over northern Afghanistan, and brought the province of Balkh under his empire. During this period Buddhism also gained dominance over Afghanistan. Gandhari Prakrit language became an important religious medium of expression. Numerous Buddha Viharas and huge Buddha images were also created in Afghanistan, especially in the Bamiyan area.

The Arab invader Muhammad Qasim marched to Sindh via Bolan Pass and defeated King Dahir in 711 AD. His main intention was to take control of the trade routes and the seaport of Debal located on Makran shores. From this port, the trade was conducted with Sri Lanka and Arab countries. Med-Baloch Sea pirates of Debal used to plunder the loaded ships. Thus, the sea route had become dangerous. To gain control over the pirates Dahir was unsuccessful. Arab wanted a better share in the trade without any interruption from the pirates. The way land routes used to be always in the shadow of vicious robbers; sea routes were no exception.

                                                                           (Remains of Debal Port)

Later, the Emperor of Kashmir Lalitaditya Muktapida defeated Arab Governor Tamim and forced him to flee. In 731 AD Lalitaditya chased him via Bolan Pass to Afghanistan and killed him in a skirmish. Lalitaditya gained control over the south and North Afghanistan and marched over to Bactria. He forced Arabs out and gained control over the main silk route running through Central Asia. While coming back he took a different route and marching through the Mintaka pass, defeated the Shahi rulers of Gilgit, Baltistan, and Tibetan forces located at Ladakh. Thus he gained control over the trade routes that previously were controlled by the Arabs and Tibetans.

In 1748, another noted invasion was by the Afghan king Ahmad Shah Durrani who invaded India by using the Bolan Pass in addition to the traditional Khyber Pass route. The Durrani capital Kandahar was located nearby the pass, which gave them quick access to Indian lands.

Threatened by a possible Russian invasion of South Asia via the Khyber and Bolān Passes, In 1837,  a British envoy was sent to Kabul to gain the support of the Emir, Dost Mohammed. In February 1839 during the First Anglo-Afghan War, the British Army under Sir John Keane took 12,000 men through the Bolān Pass and entered Qandahar, which the Afghan Princes had abandoned; from there they would go on to attack and overthrow Ghazni.

However, though there were interruptions in trading activity through the Pass, the trade continued undeterred, since Indus times. It is believed that the ancient city Mundigak which was located near Kandahar was a major trade center of ancient times. Various layers, ranging from 4000 BC to 2400 BC, shows contacts of this city with central Asia, west Asia, and the Indus Valley.

 

In excavations, it was found that Mundigak has some material related to the Indus Valley civilization. This material consists in part of ceramic figurines of snakes and humped bulls, and other items, similar to those found at other Indus Valley sites. ⁸

Pottery found at Mundigak had a number of similarities with such material found at Kot Diji. This material shows up at the earliest layer of Kot Diji, an Indus site.

Khyber Pass is located in the Khyber Pakhtunwa province of Pakistan. This pass was part of the ancient Silk Road because the major trade center, Bactria was quite close to this Pass. This also was a strategic choke point for various states that controlled this Pass.

Most of the invasions also have taken place through this pass. Historical invasions of the Indian subcontinent, such as of Cyrus, Darius I, Scythians, Huns, Alexander, Genghis Khan, and later Mongols. However, every ruler was interested in controlling the trade routes. In the first century AD, during the Kanishka period, this route became more prominent. Since then Khyber Pass became a critical part of the Silk Road, a major trade route from East Asia to Europe.

The Parthian Empire fought for control of Passes such as this to profit from the trade in silk, jade, and other luxuries moving from China to Western Asia and Europe. Through the Khyber Pass, Gandhara, in present-day Pakistan, became a regional center of trade connecting Bagram in Afghanistan to Taxila in India, adding Indian luxury goods such as ivory, pepper, and textiles to the Silk Road commerce.

Among the Muslim invasions of the Indian subcontinent through the Khyber Pass were Mahmud Ghaznavi, Muhammad Ghori, and the Turkic Mongols. Finally, Sikhs under Ranajit Singh captured the Khyber Pass in 1834. The Sikh general Hari Singh Nalwa manned the Khyber Pass for years.

Recently, during the War in Afghanistan, the Khyber Pass was a major route for resupplying military armament and food to NATO forces in the Afghan theater of conflict since the US started the invasion of Afghanistan in 2001. Almost 80 percent of the NATO and US supplies that were brought in by road were transported through the Khyber Pass. ⁹

Dorah Pass connects the Badakshan province of Afghanistan. This pass is at an elevation of 14000 feet and is located near the Durand Line border.

Chitral, being on the border of northern Afghanistan, was connected to the Western world through the Dorah Pass. Chitral has been a historically neglected region though there was considerable traffic from Badakshan (Northeastern Afghanistan)   through the Dorah Pass (in Khyber Pakhtunva), across southern Chitral, and through the Lowarai Pass to reach the ancient Buddhist monasteries in Swat valley. The Dorah Pass is one of the four major mountain passes that enter Chitral.

 The others are the Broghol Pass from the Wakhan District of Badakhshan, Afghanistan, Shandur Top from Gilgit, and Lowari Top from the Upper Dir District. Although little is known of the medieval history of the area, Chitral, in the 4^th to 10th century was subject to the king of Kabul. In the 10^th to 16th centuries, Chitral became a princely state under the rule of a dynasty of mehtars.

 Besides other caravan trades, Slave trading was the principal source of income for the rulers of Chitral and neighboring Gizar and Yasin. The slaves were supplied particularly to Badaḵshan and southern Kashmir. From the early 13^th to 19th century and the beginning of the “Great Game”, the geopolitical rivalry between the Russians and the British in Central and Inner Asia, Chitral was a focal point for Indian imperial attention.

 Dorah Pass became important during the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan because the Soviets were unable to stop the flow of arms and men back and forth across the pass. Almost the entire Munji-speaking population of Afghanistan fled across the border to Chitral during the War in Afghanistan. Dorah Pass is situated in the Pamir, a high plateau sometimes called "The roof of the world" that joins Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and China.

 

Today access to the Chitral district is through the Lowarai pass, which is, however, closed by winter snows. A track for vehicles with four-wheel drive links Mastuj district with Gilgit through the Shandur pass. The trading traffic from Northern Afghanistan to Gilgit used this route as well making Gilgit a trade junction.

 

The importance of these trade routes was recognized by the Muslim rulers like Shershah Suri and Mogals who tried to control these trade routes to bring in revenue against exports in the form of bullion. These were the routes that were used by Nadershah and Ahmadshah Durrani to attack the Mughal empire and empty their treasure. Lakhs of Indian men and women were made slaves and were driven to Afghanistan to throw them into a crevasse of misery.

 It can be seen from above that the routes passing through the northwest have contributed immensely to trade and commerce since Indus times. The Indian religions spread out through these Passes and in turn, other religions too entered India. The cultural exchange led to the emergence of Gandharan art during the Kushan period. The Gandhari Prakrit spread to Central Asia through these routes. World-famous travelers, scholars, and monks visited India in search of knowledge. The trade routes have contributed to the enhancement of global knowledge and culture.

 However, because of Pakistan and its occupation of Indian territories, these trade routes are closed to India, thus cutting off Indian Land links with the east and central Asia. Though in the modern world, trade can be further expanded to the regions like Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, etc., the prospect is bleak to see a opening of these trade routes for India, unless the relations with Pakistan are improved which is unlikely. 

 

^·           

 

Ref.-

1.       "Sites along the Uttarapath, Badshahi Sadak, Sadak-e-Azam, Grand Trunk Road". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 

2.      Bryant, Edwin (2001), The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate, Oxford University Press.

3.       "The Bolan Pass." — Extract of a letter from an Officer of the Bengal Artillery, dated Camp at "Quetra," or, more properly, "Shawl Kot," in Khorasan, 2 December 1841. JRGS, Vol. 12 (1842), pp. 109–110.

4.       Kuzmina EE, Mair VH (2008) The Prehistory of the Silk Road. Philadelphia: Univ. Pennsylvania Press.

5.      McIntosh, Jane (2005). Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 135.

6.      Vermaak, Fanie (2008). "Guabba, the Meluhhan village in Mesopotamia". Journal for Semitics. 17/2: 454–471.

7.      Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1988) [first published in 1966], Chandragupta Maurya and his times (4th ed.).

8.      McIntosh, Jane. (2008) The Ancient Indus Valley, New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. Page 86.

9.      Karin Brulliard (October 9, 2010). "Pakistan reopens border to NATO supply trucks". Washington Post Foreign Service. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. 

 

 

Historicity of Jain Tirthankar Rishabhnatha

 

Historicity of Jain Tirthankar Rishabhnatha

By

Sanjay Sonawani

Rishabhnatha alias Adinath (Rishabhadeva) is considered to be the first Tirthankara (Ford maker) of Jainism. The term “Tirthankara” is not used in the sense of apostle or founder of religion. Tirtha is not meant here as a holy place to visit with devotion. A seer, a knower, and a person who shows the human being a higher direction is called Tirthankara. The word Tirtha has several meanings in Jain scriptures, as given here: (1) religion, (2) the wharf (ghat) or harbor leading to the salvation from the ocean of worldly affairs, (3) the association of Jain male-female monks and laymen like sravakas, sravikas, (4) the 12 Anga scriptures of Jainism.

From these descriptions, the term Tirthankara means religious leader, head of the Jain religious association, the person who shows the path to salvation. But these are temporal meanings; the symbolic meanings behind this term are different. Tirthankaras are referred as 'Jin', meaning the conqueror of the senses, 'Arhat', Sarvajna, Veetarag, and Kevali. The followers of this religion are called 'Jain' which originates from the word Jin. Only after attaining enlightenment, Tirthankaras go around preaching. Tirthankaras are Kevalis (omniscient) but not all Kevalis become Tirthankaras.

According to the Jain Puranas, many deities and yaksha-yakshinis (Demigods) are regarded as servants, bodyguards or attendants of Tirthankaras. There are twelve assemblies around him including variety of gods and disciples.  

Around the face of Tirthankaras is a glow, thousand times brighter than the sun. Their shadow does not fall. Their feet fall on the golden lotus. A crore of Gods surround them. When Tirthankara's soul incarnates in his mother's womb, she has fourteen great dreams. Dreams include sight of bull, lion, garland, Lakshmi, Elephant Airavat, full moon, rising sun, two golden urns etc. Before Tirthankara is born, Kubera for six months showers jewels on the city of his origin. As soon as Tirthankara is born, Indra descends from heaven with his family and takes infant Tirthankara to celestial Mount Meru. There, all the Gods anoint the infant Tirthankara and bring him back to his mother. A total of five glorious events take place in the life of a Tirthankara which are called as 'Panchkalyanaka'. Its names are as follows: (1) Garbha-kalyanak or Chyavana-kalyanak, (2) Janma-kalyanak, (3) Diksha-kalyanak, (4) Kevaljnana-kalyanak and (5) Nirvana-kalyanak.

When the Tirthankaras come to a place to preach after attaining Kevaljnana (omniscient), Gods visit  to that place and design a Samavasaran i.e. sermon hall with three bastions around the hall. There are four doors on all four sides and a grand pillar (Manstambha) is erected in front of the main entrance. Twelve types of councils of gods, goddesses, monks, kings etc. are considered. Tirthankara sits on a throne under the Ashoka tree and preaches with divine voice, while his face is visible in all four directions. At this time Gods shower flowers, fragrant winds blow, all trees blossom forth, all regions become clean and fragrant. Animals in Samavasaran forget their natural animosity.

Two parts of Time Cycles are envisioned by Jain scriptures. The half that comes down from above is Avasarpini and the half that goes up from below is Utsarpini. Both have six sections each. The names of the 24 Tirthankaras who became Tirthankaras in the current Avasarpini era and their sectarian information like Digambar-Swetambar sects are given as below.

1.. Rishabhadeva

2. Ajitnath

3. Sambhavanath

4. Abhinandan Nath

5. Sumatinath

6. Padmaprabh

7. Suparshwanath

8. Chandraprabh

9. Suvidhinath

10 Sheetal Nath

11. Shreyansanath

12, Vasupujya

13. Vimal Nath

14. Anantnath

15. Dharmanath

16. Shantinath

17. Kunthunath

18. Aranath

19. Mallinath

20. Munisuvratnath

21. Naminath

22. Neminath

23. Parshwanath

24. Mahavir

 

As per scriptures, Tirthankar no. 7 and 23 were from Ugra clan. Number 15, 16, 17 were born in Kuru clan. Mahavira was born in the Dnyatru (Jnata, Nata) clan and all the rest in the warrior clan. It has been proved that out of these 24 Tirthankaras, Rishabh, Nemi, Parshva and Mahavira were historical persons. Shwetambara sect believes that Tithankara Malli was a woman. According to the Digambaras women do not get emancipation, so Malli must have been a man. The names of the future 24 Tirthankaras and their descriptions are also found in Jain texts.

Since most of the above information comes from mythological texts, it is obvious that there will be fantasticalism and exaggeration in it. Apart from this, differences in details are also can be traced due to sectarian differences. Since the mythological information has been added and altered from time to time or some original history has been forgotten or in response to other religious and cultural forces the interpolations seem to have taken place blurring historical information hence the above information should be taken with caution. While interpreting all this mythological information, we have to go into the ancient mentality and understand what exactly they would have been trying to convey through their mythical vision. Meanings of words, concepts and style of descriptions do change over time. Therefore, it is natural that it would be unfair to impose on them only those words and the meaning they have today. Many researchers refuse to treat the mythological works as historical references, but there is no need to do so. The more fantastic the event is depicted, should considered more ancient. The reason for this is that in ancient times, humans used to look at his surroundings and events in a mystical-wonderful manner. Even the concept of time has to be interpreted separately from the perspective of ancient humans without connecting it with today's concepts or measurements. Mythological scriptures all over the world are influenced by this particular fantastical style. Rigveda, Avesta, Book of Dead, Gilgamesh, Odyssey, Iliad, Ramayana, Mahabharata, etc., are numerous ancient religious-poetry texts which are indicative of the marvelous vision of the writers of past. It is natural to think today that there is an exaggeration. Moreover, these stories have to be placed in the context of time. It means that if the gods and goddesses of the later times have appeared in the ancient stories, it has to be taken into account that it is a later adulteration. Tracing historicity of ancient characters is not easy. However, we will try here to find whether Rishabhnatha was a historical character or not from the information provided by the ancient texts.  Let us see first what is known about Adinath alias Rishabhanatha to Puranas and other Jain and Hindu literature.

“Jambuddivapannati Sutta”, ancient text written by unknown writer gives us vivid information about Rishabhnatha's biography which has been written between the 4th and 3rd century BC. Herman Jacobi argues that by studying the language, attitudes and astronomical knowledge appearing in this book of the Shwetambara Jain sect, mainly because it do not contain the concepts of Greek astronomy that appear in all Indian astronomical texts after the second century AD, i.e. long after Alexander's invasion. The book “Yavanjataka” is believed to have been first translated from the Greek language by Pingri in AD 149-150 during the reign of Saka king Rudradamana. After that, Indian astronomers believed to have started to include planets and zodiac signs in their texts. It is also speculated that the Indians may have been introduced to the Greek system of astrology during the invasion of Alexander in 325 BC. Moreover, among the texts like Chandra Prajnapti, Surya Prajnapti and Jambudvipa Prajnapti are also accepted as part of Drishtivada by the Digambar sects. This means that all these three texts must have been written before the formation of the two sects Shwetambara and Digambara, states the famous scholar Dalsukh Malvaniya. ¹

The first religious council of Jains was held at Pataliputra 160 years after Lord Mahavira's Nirvana. Lord Mahavira's speeches were collected in this council. Then there was a terrible 21-year long drought during the reign of Emperor Chandragupta. At this time Acharya Bhadrabahu went south with thousands of Jain sages. This is where the distinction of Shwetambara and Digambara is believed to have originated. This only means that the final edition of the Jambuddiva Pannati Sutta was done before this separation. Moreover, the language in this book is also archaic Ardha Magadhi. The biographies of Lord Rishabhadeva and Chakravarti Bharata are given in a brief form and we can call it ancient biography, but it must have come through the oral or written tradition. It is not that there are not any interpolations in the original text, but we safely can conclude that this book is close to the time of Lord Mahavira.

One such ancient work is the "Kalpasutra" composed by Bhadrabahu, which tradition holds to have been composed 150 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. But this composition was finalized in written form 980 or 993 years after Mahavira's Nirvana. (AD 411, fifth century) This work is believed to have been completed during the reign of King Dhruvasena of Gujarat. According to the text and the language, Bhadrabahu, composer of this text and the Bhadrabahu who migrated to south along with thousands of Jain sages cannot be the same. However, even if we accept the change in language in course of the time, the information about Rishabhnatha appearing in Kalpasutra seems to be ancient. It can be assumed that the author of Kalpasutra was not original Bhadrabahu as this composition belongs to the fifth century, but can be interpreted that the source of this writing was ancient. Scholars believe that the Kalpasutra, which contains a poetic description of the dreams of the mother before the birth of Tirthankara, may have been added much later but before the tenth century. The description of the dreams is unattainable in the ancient copies of this book. Moreover, there is no significant difference between the accounts of Jambuddivapannati Sutta and Kalpasutra except for minor differences. In the Kalpasutra there is a more detailed biography of Parshvanatha and Mahavira. The biography of Rishabhnatha is given in a very brief form. The social condition and public affairs of the fifth century are largely reflected in this book. The Prakrit of this book is also comparatively modern. The influences of Vedic concepts are noticeable in this script. Apart from this, the ancient texts of Tiloyanapannati (Triloka Prajnapti), Neshyaniryukti, and Sthanangasutra also shed light on some facts about the life of Tirthakaras.

Apart from this, a detailed biography of Rishabhnatha is found in Acharya Jinsena's Adi Purana (or Mahapurana), which is believed to have been written during the reign of the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha, i.e. in the ninth century. Mahapurana in Prakrit composed by Mahakavi Pushpadanta also has a detailed biography. Apart from this, the biography of Rishabhnatha is also mentioned in the twelfth century Hemcandra Muni's book "Trishastishalakapurusha". Kannada poet Pamp (940 AD) has also given the biography of Rishabhnatha and his two sons in his poetry.

Non-Jain literature includes Rigveda, Yajurveda, Bhagavatapurana, Vayupurana, Brahmanda, Agni, Vishnu, Markandeya, Kurma, Linga, Varah, Skanda and Bhagavata etc. that contains some information about Rishabhnatha.  Bhagavata Purana goes further and declares Rishabhnatha as an incarnation of Vishnu. Most of the Hindu/Vedic Puranas refer to Rishabhadeva as Paramahamsa, Avadhuta, Yogi and Jatadhari. Buddhist literature too mentions Rishabhnatha and other Tirthankaras such as Dharmaottarapradip. Buddhist literature has also been used to determine the historicity of Parshvanatha.

The special feature of the Jambuddivapannati text is that it does not accept the concept of "Manu" which was later accepted by the Jains as well, but the independent concept of  “Kulkar” was accepted. According to the Vedic religion, Manu was the first man, whose name was Swayambhuva Manu, and whose wife was Shatrupa. Each Manu has a specific period and each Manu has a different name. Not only this, their number is also given differently. There are 14 Manus in total and currently the era of seventh Manu i.e. Vaivaswat Manu is ongoing. The period of one Manu is called Manvantar. The next Manu is yet to incarnate. Among the names and numbers of Manu, there is no agreement in all texts. For example 8 Manus are mentioned in Mahabharata and 14 Manus are mentioned in Shwetavarah Kalpa. It is believed that the words Manav, Manushya etc. were evolved from the word Manu. Although Manu is a title, some Vedic texts treat him as a historical figure. According to Jain scriptures, Kulkars are those who taught mankind new ways of living with wisdom. In the Adipurana (Mahapurana) of the ninth century, however, the term Manu is used avoiding the original concept of Kulkar.

According to the Jambuddivapannati Sutta (Second chapter) in Jainism, however, there were 15 Kulkaras in the third part of the Avasarpini era. Their names are Sumati, Pratishruti, Seemankara, Seemandhara, Kshemankara, Kshemandhara, Vimalavahana, Chakshuman, Yasswan, Abhichandra, Chandrabha, Prasenjit, Marudeva, Nabhi and the fifteenth Kulkara Rishabha is mentioned. There are differences in this number in other books and although there is unanimity about the number and order in three books namely Paumchariya, Harivanshpurana and Siddhantasangraha, they have considered only 14 Kulkaras, may be under Vedic influence. The order is also slightly different and it is Pratisruti, Sanmati, Kshemankara, Kshemandhara, Seemankara, Seemandhara, Vimalavahana, Chakshumana, Yassavan, Abichandra, Chandrabha, Marudhava, Prasenjit, Nabhiraya. In Jambuddivapannati Sutta Granth, however, Rishabhadeva is also included in Kulkara. Acharya Jinsen seems to have changed the order of the names of the Kulkaras in his Adipurana to some extent.

According to the Jambuddivapannati Sutta, each Kulkara had his own punishment policy. The first Arhat Rishabha was born in Kaushal country to Kulkara Nabhi and his wife Marudevi. He was the first king to incarnate in the land of Kaushal, the first Jin, the first Kevali, the first Tirthankara and this great man who became the first Chakravarti of the Religious Empire by destroying evil with charity, religion and austerities. After passing 20 lakh years up to young age, he spent 63 lakhs years in his emperor state. During this period he invented 72 arts for men and 64 arts for women like writing, speech, mathematics etc. He preached for the welfare of the people. He anointed his hundred sons with one hundred kingdoms. He spent the life of a householder for 83 lakh years. After that, realizing that all things are unstable and therefore it is useless to be attached to them, in the second half of the Navami of Krishna Paksha in the month of Chaitra, he left in his palanquin called Sudarshana, renouncing all the glory along with the women from royal palace, distributing all the wealth among the citizens. At that time, an immense crowd began to follow him, cheering him on. When they came to Siddhartha forest, got down from the palanquin under the Ashoka tree and pulled his four fistfuls of hair and started fasting without water. He is also called “keshi” because he left a fistful of hair on his head. On the Uttarashadha Nakshatra, he accepted a garment from one of his citizens and became a monk with renunciation (Pravajja).

The Koshalik arhat (Rishabhnatha) then wore the garment donated by his citizens for a year. Later he gave up clothes too. Since taking Pravajja, since embracing to Samana Dharma, he became disinterested in the material pleasures of the world. He was neither proud nor sad about the honor or dishonor. He attained forgiveness and steadfastness in all situations. Without expectation of riches, (relationship, wealth, attachment), region, (land, village, city, palace etc.) time (free from the constraints of day-night, month, year) and feelings (affection, greed, enmity, fear etc.) He created the restriction of keeping. Apart from Chaturmasa, he constantly wandered in a non-attached attitude. After a pilgrimage of one thousand years, under a banyan tree in a park called Shakatmukh outside the city of Purimtal, he became a knower and a seer after having the divine knowledge on Phalgun Krishna Ekadashi.

After that, he began his wandering preaching the five sacred vows ( Mahavratas) to all. While describing the Rishabha it is said here (Sutta 40) that he was five hundred bows tall. After living a perfect life of 84 lakhs of years, he attained Nirvana in the early morning on Trayodasi, when Abhijit Nakshatra was on the peak of Mount Ashtapada.

When he attained Nirvana, the throne of King of the gods, Shakra also shook. The name Shakra is described in the Rigveda as an epithet of the god Indra. To celebrate this parinirvana, Devendra Shakra came to the Ashtapada Mountain with his eight queens, 84 thousand gods and council of ministers and with wet eyes circumambulated the body of the Tirthankara.

At the same time the lord of the world, Shulpani with bull-vehicle and trident in hand, Ishan Devendra also came there with his eight wives and thousands of gods. Similarly, all the Devendras came there and bowed to the Arhat's body three times. Later, Shankara called for sandalwood from Paradise and made a pyre. Along with the Tirthankaras, Ganadharas and Sadhus who attained Nirvana after bathing in sea water and applying sandalwood paste, they were all placed on pyres. Then with the help of wind gods wind was generated and with the help Fire God fire was created and they were duly cremated. The pyres were extinguished after complete combustion with the help of Cloud God. Devendra Shakra ordered that three jeweled stupas be built to house the bones of the Tirthankaras, Ganadharas and Sadhus and preserve the bones. After that Parinirvana festival was celebrated in many places.

In the Jambuddivapannati Sutta there is such a description of Rishabhdeva. Since this is the first biography available in written form, we will compare the biographies written later and discuss them in detail. But the point to be mentioned here is that in the fourth chapter of this book, detailed information about the victories of Chakravarti Bharata is given, but the story of Bharata's brother Baahubali and the duel between Bharata and Baahubali finds no mention in it. Moreover, there is no indication that Rishabhnatha and Bharata created the four Varnas, which are foundation of Vedic religious system.²

A brief biography of Rishabhnatha is also recorded in the Kalpasutra written by Bhadrabahu.³ However, a little more information is available in the translation of Manakyamuni.

This book begins with the entire Namokara Mantra and contains detailed biographies of Mahavira and Parshvanatha and brief biographies of other Tirthankaras. If there are differences in the biography of Rishabhnatha in both these books, they are as follows-

1. Jambuddivapannati Sutta does not give the date of birth of Rishabhnathaa (Prakrit-usabha) but in Kalpasutra it is mentioned that he was conceived to Marudevi at midnight on Krishna Chaturthi in Ashadha month and was born on Krishna Ashtami in Chaitra month. When Lord Rishabh was in the womb, his mother Marudevi had sixteen dreams and the first dream was of Taurus (Rishabha). In order to understand the meaning of dreams, Nabhiraja is reported to have interpreted them himself (without calling Brahmins or priests).

2. The Jambuddivapannati Sutta mentions only Vinaya Nagri, but the names Ikkhagu (Ikshvaku) and Ayodhya are also appears to be mentioned in the Kalpsutra. The name Ayodhya for Vinaya appears much later. It also provides additional information that Rishabhadeva belonged to the Kasyapa gotra.

3. In the Kalpasutra only Khattiya (Kshatriya) varna or farmer class is mentioned. There is no mention of Rishabhnatha creating any varna. Ugra, Bhoja, Rajanya and Khatiya are indicated to be roughly four classes but they are not called Varna.⁴ However, there is no indication of any social stratified class or presence of Varna system in Jambuddivapannati.

4. It is written at the end of the seventh chapter of Kalpasutra that Kalpasutra was composed 680 years after Mahavira. Jambuddivapannati Sutta does not contain such a date.⁵

5. In the Jambuddivapantti Sutta, after the parinirvana of Rishabhnatha, the arrival of deities like Indra-Shulpani, burning of the bodies, erecting stupas, etc. information appears, which is completely absent from the Kalpa Sutra.

The Acharya Jinsena’s Adipurana is creation of the Amoghavarsha period (736 to 799 CE) and is considered the crown jewel of Jain mythological work. It is considered as the best book among the Prathamanuyoga books of the Jainagamas. According to the Digambara tradition, the Anga and Purva are ancient texts that have been destroyed and do not recognize the Shwetambara Angas as authoritative. Digambar Jain religious literature is divided into four parts and the texts of Prathamanuyoga section contain biographies of Tirthankaras and other great men. Karananuyoga includes the knowledge of cosmic geography while Charanuyoga includes the rules of conduct for monks and adherents of religion. Philosophical questions are alluded to in Dravyanuyoga. This four-fold theology is acceptable to the Digambaras. The term Mahapurana refers to the biographies of 63 great men. Acharya Jinsen uses the term Mahapurana as an alternative to Trishastilakshana, while Hemacandra refers to his composition as Trishastisalakapurusha. The tenth century Pushpadanta also titles his composition as Tisatthimahapurisa Gunalankara along with the Mahapurana. This Jain definition comes close to the definition of puranas as an ancient genealogy. The Mahapurana of Jinasena was not completed by him. But biographies of Rishabhadeva and Bharata are added later by the disciple Gunabhadra who completed his text. The work was given another name as “Trisashtilakshan Mahapurana Sangraha”. This book is in two volumes and has 47 chapters. 42 parves and 3 verses of the 43rd parva which are composed by Acharya Jinsena and the rest 1620 verses are composed by his disciple Sri Gunabhadracharya. This later addition is called Uttarpurana. Probability is Jinasena's death left the work unfinished which was completed by Gunabhadra. It contains the lives of 24 Tirthankaras, 12 Chakravarti, 9 Narayana, 9 Pratinarayana, 9 Balabhadra.

Mahendrakumar Nyayacharya, editor of the Murtidevi Jain Granthamala, in his introduction to the translated Adipurana, says that during the time of Acharya Jinsena (ninth century), in the south there was a fierce conflict between Brahmanical (Vedic) religion and Jainism. To protect Jainism from the onslaught following the liberal culture of Mahavira,  Jinsena Jainized many Brahminical doctrine. He adds that no writer can remain aloof from the social influences of his time and Jinsena is no exception. As in Manusmriti, the Jain version of the rituals from conception to final rites is given in this Purana. But of course he modified it by stating whoever accepted the non-violent Jain vows was considered a Brahmin. It is mandatory for a person who has undergone such vows to wear a sacrificial thread..... Jinsena further asserts that Rishabhnatha established the society and the polity and created only three varnas. But Bharata Chakravarti established the Brahmin varna. It is said that anyone can become a Brahmin by taking vows. A Jain Brahmin should earn his livelihood by means of sword, pen, agriculture, and trade.⁶  According to this Purana Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra varna were established by Rishabhadeva while Brahmin class was established by Chakravarti Bharata.  Of course, change in the meaning of these Varnas and the fact that they were tied with the vows and not with birth are significant modification. (Adipurana Parva 38) However, it is clear that basic concept is borrowed from the Vedic system that does not correspond to the views of the ancient Jain texts.

These descriptions about Varnas seem to have come as a reaction to overall volatile socio-political situation and rivalry among Jain and Vedic religions of the time or it could have come as to show how Jainism was superior to Vedic religion. In the overall Jain literature, the clear mention of varnas and untouchability is first found only in the Jinsena’s Adipurana. Of course, Jinsena has defined varna as acquired not by birth but by karma/profession. In the same book, Jinsena also mentions that Shudras are divided into two parts, Touchable and Untouchable. On the lines of Vishnu Sahasranama, Rishabhadeva's thousand names also have been counted in this. In short, it seems that the influence of the then social system, popular beliefs and influence of Vedic social philosophy has influenced the writer Jinsena. The definition of varna in the Gita and other Vedic texts is also based on karma, however, that definition appears to have remained only on paper and was not practiced at all in actual social life.

But the important thing is that Jinsena's definition of varna has been completely rejected by his disciple Gunabhadra in the Uttar Purana, in which it has been declared that "Though there are differences in attitudes, the human race is uniform one and there is no caste or racial discrimination in the human race..." ⁷ So it seems clear that the Jain acharyas definitely differed on whether to support the varna system or not. Of course, in many later Jain texts, the interpretation given by Gunabhadra has been officially accepted and it is compatible with Jain philosophy. Yet the influence of the caste system on today's Jains is astonishing. Now it is also important to look at the biography of Rishabhnatha written in the Vedic shade in this book.

According to the information in this epic, Rishabhadeva was the first of the 24 Tirthankaras of the current Avasarpini era. During the third period of Avasarpini era, the structure of Bhogbhumi (Land of consumers) was ending and the structure of Karmabhumi (Land of the actions) was beginning. There was no need for human beings to do any work because of the Kalpavriksha (wish fulfilling trees) during the Bhogbhumi era. But as the Kalpavriksha became weak, the time had come for man to subsist on naturally grown grains. Indra came down from heaven and established the city of Ayodhya and was adorned by the Nabhi and Marudevi. In this changing age, Rishabhadeva was born on the auspicious day of Chaitra months Shukla Navami to Marudevi. Earlier, Marudevi had sixteen suggestive auspicious dreams while Rishabhdeva was still in her womb. Rishabhadeva was possessed of extraordinary talent and intelligence from birth. With the destruction of the Kalpavriksha and the subsequent decay of natural food, the hungry people came wailing to Nabhiraja, "Save us...". Nabhiraja took them to Rishabhadeva whose heart melted after seeing miserable condition of the subjects. He using his powers remembered the system of Videha kshetra and instantly decided to bring the same system here. He taught the people the arts like Asi (military work), Mashi (writing), Krishi (agricultural work), Vidya (dance, music), Shilpa (making various articles) and trade, and with the help of Indra architected the country, cities and villages. These six activities helped people to get livelihood. Thus Bhogbhumi changed into Karmabhumi. As Rishabhadeva made all these arrangements with his talent, he got the titles of Adipurusha, Vidhata, Brahma etc.

He then married Yashaswati and Sunanda, sisters of the kings of Kachch and Mahakachch, with the consent of Nabhiraja and Indra. (In the earlier text it is mentioned that Rishabhadeva married his own sisters Sunanda and Sumangala as per the then marriage custom. Previously, according to the ancient Jain texts, the institution of marriage did not exist. It was established by Rishabhadeva. The information in the Adipurana is inconsistent with that information.) Due to the insistence of Nabhiraja, he also took charge of the kingdom. Later he had 100 sons including Bharat from Yashasvati and a daughter named Brahmi. From Sunanda they had a son Baahubali and a daughter Sundari. Lord Rishabhdeva taught his sons and daughters the science of public welfare. From that time, teaching and learning also spread in his kingdom.

When Nilanjana, a dancer died suddenly while dancing in the court, Rishabhdeva felt the ephemerality of life and became despondent. He gave the kingdom to his eldest son Bharata and assumed Pravajja after distributing various territories to other sons. Following his footsteps four thousand other kings also accompanied him. But being disturbed by thirst and hunger, after the completion of six months he went out for food. But the people of that time did not know the ritual to feed the sages. Rishabhadeva had to travel for other six months as he did not get the food following ritual. Going north of Ayodhya, he turned towards Hastinapur where a king named Somprabha was ruling at that time. His younger brother Shreyans had known to Rishabhadeva in previous life. He remembered that he had given food to a sage in that birth. Shreyans fed sugarcane juice to Rishabhadeva onVaishakh Shuddha Tritiya, the day came to be celebrated as Akshaya Tritiya. After taking the food, he went back to the forest and after a thousand years of austerities, he attained Kevaljnana.

 Meanwhile, Bharata became the first Chakravarti. He expanded the empire by conquering six regions of Bharatkhand through Chakraratna (a mythical celestial jewel) and taught the method of governance to the kings under him. He also established the Brahmin varna and thus Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra varna came into existence according to the distinction of livelihood. Then the Rishabhdeva roamed everywhere to preach to the people. At the end of his life he moved to Mount Kailash where his nirvana took place. Although Bharata Chakravarti was the ruler of the earth, he was not attached to anything and this quality helped him to attain Kevaljnana the moment he took Pravajja. He also wandered everywhere and later attained nirvana. There is no mention of a duel between Bharata and Baahubali in the Jambuddivapannati Sutta and here too.

Although there are some differences in the biography of Jambuddivapannati, Kalpasutra and Adipurana, we can easily see that there is uniformity in the main narrative. The differences that exist are created under the social influence of the time and later additions. As the Kalpasutra and Jambuddivapannati do not mention the incident that Rishabhadeva became disillusioned due to the death of the dancer Nilanjana, the story of sugarcane juice diet also does not occur in earlier literature. In oldest versions it is mentioned that Rishabhadeva did not receive alms for at least one year after his initiation, but the date is not mentioned. However, the story of Shreyans serving sugarcane juice and the date of serving is mentioned in the Adipurana and the Mahapurana of Mahakavi Pushpadanta and in two other later texts. Although Adipurana emphatically state that Rishabhadeva established three varnas and Bharata established one (Brahman) varna, seems to have been written under Vedic influence of that time. In Jambuddivapannati, after the Nirvana of Rishabhdeva, the information that Indra and Shulpani themselves appeared and performed the last rites seems to have been added much later because when Rishabdev was born (approx. 2700 BC), the Vedic religion was not even formed and entered India, so it is not possible for Indra to exist as a deity in India. However, concept of Indra used in Jain texts is contrary to Vedic narration. In Jambuddivapannati there exists many Indras of different characteristics.   Therefore, there is no possibility that the Indra mentioned by the Vedics and the Jain texts is the same. The mention of Shakrendra having eight wives also shows the difference in concept. The idea that different Indras were the chiefs of different groups of gods seems to prevail among Jain theologies whereas the Vedic Indra possesses entirely different characteristics. So, we can infer that the text was inserted when the idea of Indra had traveled to Jains, they conceptualized him differently.

Moreover, Shankara has been called Vrishabhavahana as well as Shulpani. During the period of Rishabhanatha, Shiva was worshiped only in the phallic form and was not given a humanlike form, so it is unlikely that he took the form of Vrishabhavahana or Shulpani then. Shiva became personified later. A trident was placed in his hand and Nandi (Bull) was conceived as his vehicle. Therefore, it does not seem correct that Shiva existed in the form of Shulpani during the time of Rishabhadeva. However, this form may have taken place by the time the Jambuddivapannati was being written and the Vedics also had settled in India. This portion may have been added later to show that even important Vedic deity like Indra and the main God of folk-religion also  had respect for their Teerthankara.

It is a historical fact that the stratified varna system was brought to India by the Vedics and a heterogeneous social structure was introduced. The fourth Varna “Shudra” was a designation of Anaryas or local people who didn’t belong to the Vedic religion. Moreover, it took the fourth century AD for this system to spread in the Indian social system. However, it was not accepted by the common people of the folk religion (which we now call Hindu or Bahujan excluding the Vedics). Birth-based caste system did not even exist in India till the 10th century, though Vedics strictly followed the Varna system. Therefore, Acharya Jinsena's statement that Rishabhadeva first created the varnas can only be said is to counterattack the Vedics of the time, otherwise his disciple, Gunabhadra, who completed Jinsena’s incomplete work, would not have rejected the idea of varnas. Yet ignoring it, it is a fact that caste and caste system entered Jainism in later course of time. The final chapter of the book "Charvaka: History and Philosophy" by Sadashiv Athavale states that, “even if it is accepted that this anti-social practice has entered the Jain religion because of the Vedics, as the idea of caste discrimination is rooted in the way of life of the Jains, yet they claim  that they rebelled against the Vedic system.” This statement has to be taken on a serious note.

We have briefly seen the similarities and differences between ancient and modern biographies of Rishabhnatha. Here is a brief summary of what we see when interpolations and inconsistencies are removed.

The Jain Saman tradition dates back to pre-Mahavira times. We get information on this from Buddhist scriptures like the Tripitaka. It is also now proved that Lord Parshwanatha was a historical person. The Tripitaka mentions the Nigantha (unbound) sect. This sect is pre-Buddhist later came to be known as Jain. Lord Mahavira is also referred to as ‘Nigantha’ in Buddhist literature. Being free from attachment even from clothing is a part of Jain doctrine. Lord Parshwanatha was born in the ninth century BC. It is now becoming clear that the earlier Tirthankaras were also historical figures.

Rishabhanatha was born in a town then named as Viniya. He taught humans the things necessary to fulfill basic needs which included agriculture, trading, etc. He may have discovered these matters himself or learned from others and popularized them in his state. This is the time when foragers were converting to sedentary society. Dr. Subhash Dutt-Roy says, “It is a myth that Rishabhnatha was born millions of years ago. But there is no objection to consider his period as equivalent to the Indus Civilization i.e. between 2600 AD to 1900 AD. It is a Jain belief that Rishabhnatha was born in Ayodhya. Rishabhanatha taught people the art of living. Agriculture was invented in the Ganges Valley during the period corresponding to the Indus Civilization. From that we can infer that Rishabhnatha must have been born at least a thousand years before the establishment of the Vedic culture, i.e. around 2500 CE.” ⁸

Many images in yogic posture have been found in the Indus civilization. Many scholars speculate that they are images of Lord Shiva. Recently, many scholars have postulated that the images belong to Rishabhnatha as many of the images are in the Kayotsarga position and this yoga system was originated by the Jains. It is forwarded that, as the deity Shiva was not worshiped in personified form, those images could not be of Shiva but of Rishabhnatha. But the problem with this identification is that Rishabhnatha was born in the far east of Indus culture, in Ayodhya, then the question arises as to how those images are found in the Indus culture?  But the explanation is attempted that though he was born in Ayodhya (the Viniya city), after taking Pravajja (asceticism) and after attaining enlightenment, he traveled everywhere and preached to human beings, so it cannot be ruled out that Rishabhnatha went to the area of Indus civilization and preached to the people there also. Or it can be speculated that the images were created of Shiva (imagining him in human form) under the influence of visions of Rishabhnatha in his Kayotsarga state. Although Shiva is believed to be the originator of yoga in India, this is unlikely to be true. It is a phenomenon after yoga gained immense importance in meditation. It is very natural that Yoga was invented by early mendicants and ascetics of Saman tradition and as found useful to attain enlightenment it would have been followed by all religions. We can safely state that Shiva worshipers in folk-religion (Hindu) in later times may have envisioned Shiva as the originator of Yoga.

Famous scholar P. R. Deshmukh states that the first Jain Tirthankara (Rishabhnatha) was associated with the Indus civilization. The images of deities found on the seals are naked and Jains seem to have preserved that tradition. H. T. Colebrooke also clearly states that Jainism had its roots in the pre-Aryan (pre-Vedic) period. M. N. Deshpande says that there is a fundamental difference between the Brahminical (Vedic) ascetic and the fully withdrawn ascetic of the Sramana culture. ⁹

Dharmananda Kosambi states that, “Nigantha means freedom from bonds. This tradition of Niganthas is definitely pre-Buddhist. The Nigantha tradition is mentioned in many places in the Tripitakas and in the Anguttar Nikaya it is mentioned that a Shakya named Bappa was a Nigantha follower. It is said in Atthakathasutra that this Bappa was the uncle of Gautama Buddha.” Hermann Jacobi states that “Nigantha” means to be free from all kinds of psychological attachments and material means; one who has broken all his bonds (illusion, attraction, relations) and Nigantha was the ancient name of Jainism itself. ¹⁰

From this we realize that the Jain tradition goes back to prehistoric times and we can estimate that the religion was born at the same time as the Indus civilization. There may have been many other ideologies throughout the country during that period, but Rishabhnatha gave it a wider dimension as he himself was a ruler. In fact, tradition believes that the state system started with him. We have seen that the opinions of various scholars corroborate it. In short, there is a wide gap between the doctrines of Jainism and the Vedic religion of the Aryas in terms of time but also in the fundamental philosophy.

(Tirthankara image found in the excavations at Ayodhya. It is believed to belong to one of the Tirthankaras born in Ayodhya.)

  Excavations at Jakhera and Zusi in the Gangetic plains and in Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh also suggest that agriculture and urban settlements began around 3000 BCE. The excavations of the Archaeological Department also show that the city of Ayodhya was deserted many times in history and was inhabited again over time. If we consider that foragers turned to the settling down, to reach urban state they took few centuries, then 2700 AD should be the approximate time of Rishabhnatha and Dr. Dutta-Roy almost agrees with this time frame. The characteristics and deeds of Rishbhnatha correspond with this early stage of human civilization.  If we come across some more ancient archeological evidence, this period can go back by few more centuries. But this period is certainly not millions of years old as described in the Jain literature.

As the incident becomes more ancient, mythical elements begin to shroud the event in later times. It also is a myth that Rishabhnatha lived for 84 lakh years. In the case of 84 Siddhas, 84 thousand Stupas built by Ashoka, etc., we see how some numbers take on a mystical form in a religion or culture. Religions around the world are no exception. We can only shrug off such exaggerations as part of faith. However, if these myths are dismissed, if we can remove the glasses of faith we learn the following facts about Rishabhanatha.

1. Rishabhnatha was born in prehistoric times. At that time the institution of marriage had just come into existence. Rishabhnatha was born to Nabhiraj and Marudevi. Nabhiraj was the leader of Viniya town, a new urban settlement and the surrounding region. Rishabhnatha made the first experiment of state system. Later that system was followed in other states also.

2. Rishabhanatha was intelligent by nature and being a public figure; he himself discovered or adopted many useful things and introduced them.

3. Rishabhnatha believed in the equality of men and women because he also imparted knowledge to his daughters. Moreover, after taking pravajja many women (including his own daughters) also took pravajja with him.

4. He had not a hundred, but perhaps only two sons, Bharata and Baahubali. He had a hundred sons may be a mythological idea, as the detailed biographies of both of the sons have been found in ancient texts. In later texts though the myth of hundred sons appears, no detailed descriptions of other sons do appear except for Bharat and Baahubali.

5. Rishabhnatha got disinterested in pleasures at one stage of his life. Probably at that time Bharat and Baahubali must have reached an age capable of handling the state affairs. That means he must have taken Pravajja between the ages of forty to fifty. In other words, he must have decided to give up his royal glory and wander wearing a single garment, to contemplate and meditate on human happiness and sorrow.

6. It was during this state of meditation that he attained omniscient state and spent his life spreading the knowledge he had achieved. He attained nirvana while doing meditation on a mountain called Ashtapada, also equated with Mount Kailasa.

The reason why Rishabhanatha was the first to attain the status of Tirthankara was because he was the first to proclaim the supreme principle of non-violence and renunciation. He not only taught his subjects the rudiments of life but also imparted knowledge to them. Writing and other arts were first adopted or discovered and taught by him. History/puranas are silent on what other philosophies he gave rise to, Rishabhanatha has to be seen as the initial stage in the journey of cultural evolution. Some of the principles of Jain philosophy which developed later to utmost perfection are undoubtedly evident in the life history of Rishabhnatha. Therefore, from the Jain point of view, it is correct to say that systematic Saman culture began with him. Regarding the script, some archaeologists believe that the Brahmi script is the next stage of the Indus script. If so, there is no difficulty in accepting Rishabhanatha, his daughter or his kingdom or his era as the originator of that script. Therefore, it is right that the principles of Jain philosophy begin with Rishabhnatha. Some Vedic thinkers try to make a literal connection between Brahman and Brahmi, but if we look into the Vedas, there is no slightest indication that the Vedics had knowledge of any script.

Myths often are loaded with miraculous descriptions. But apart from unrealistic chronology, physical descriptions, miracles have no place in Rishabhnatha's life. Even the wonderful story about his birth has not been invented, which is common about other great personalities of mythological past. Although many stories were invented in later times, ancient literature is completely isolated from them. Therefore, we have to accept that though his history is incomplete and no enough proof available, it can be assumed that the Rishabhnatha was a historical figure and the origin of systemized Saman culture started from him.

That is why even the later Vedics who came to India have taken note of Rishabhnatha. (However, the Vrishabha word appearing in the Rigveda may not be indicator of Rishabhnatha and that the word might have been used to denote Bull) He is clearly mentioned in non-Jain literature as well.

Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan has made a detailed discussion about this in his book 'Indian Philosophy' and it is enlightening. He states that “the Bhagavata Purana also accepts Rishabhanath as the founder of Jainism. There is evidence that Rishabhnatha was worshiped even before 2^nd AD. The Yajurveda mentions the names of three Tirthakaras namely Rishabh, Ajitnath and Arishtanemi. Mahavira was not the founder of Jainism but a great reformer of the tradition of Parshvanatha who preceded him (776 AD). Looking at the history of Rishabhnatha, there is no doubt that Jainism existed even before Parshvanatha.” ¹¹  

Dr. Hermann Jacobi states that Jainism goes back to the earliest times. Its primitive religious and metaphysical doctrines appear to be very early in Indian philosophy. The words "Ashrava" and "Samvar" were used by the Jains in a very different context keeping true to the original meaning. On comparative study we see that they are used in a different sense in Buddhist philosophy. But from the use of these words it can be said that Jainism is pre-Vedic and very old.¹²

Eminent scholar in Jainology Dr. A. N. Upadhyay asserts that “Jainism has its roots in prehistoric times. It originated in the fertile valley of the Ganges and flourished before the arrival of the Vedic Aryas in India. It is a religion with emphasis on ethical codes, renunciation and meditation.” ¹³

Nabhi, Rishabhnatha, Marudevi, Bharata are also mentioned in Hindu/Vedic Puranas and it is clearly mentioned that this country got its name Bharat because of Chakravarti Bharata. The Bhagavata Purana places him among the twenty-four reincarnations of Vishnu and according to the Shiva Purana he is the reincarnation of Shiva. Even in non-Jain literature, despite religious differences, the fact that Rishabhadeva's name is mentioned along with his parents and sons is remarkable and is an indicator to confirm his historicity.

In short Rishabhnatha was a historical figure, though most of his history and his times is shrouded in mystery. In my opinion his time goes to the 3rd millennium BC approximately. The credit for the establishment of Nigantha (Jain) tradition/religion undoubtedly goes to him. Vedic tradition could not have any influence on Jainism because Vedic religion was formed at least 1300-1400 years after the formation of Jain ideology, and that too in Afghanistan and was entered in this land by 1200 BC.  The Vedic religion had not even spread in the north India until the time of Lord Parshvanatha in the 8th century AD. Therefore, there does not seem to be any truth in the opinion of the Vedicists that Jainism was a reaction to the Vedic religion and that this religion was founded to oppose it. Jain religion emerged from a local and purposeful folk religious culture and is credited with giving importance to the inner path over the outer path. During the time of Acharya Jinsena, i.e. in the ninth century, Vedic religion had established social and political dominance through patronization by the kings. By infiltrating many local religions or by influencing them or by forcing them to believe that they were followers of Vedic principles, they succeeded in polluting their religious ideologies. The Jains accepted the gods like Indra, though in secondary and changed form. They accepted the social order defined by the Vedics by making sea changes in basic  Vedic doctrine. In fact, the changes were made in order to show that the Jains were originators of many Vedic principles. This later religious struggle is recorded in history but its impact is well reflected in religious literature. All this happened only after the 9th century due to the nationwide drought, drastically changing political and social environment of that time. It can also be seen as a compromise made to survive in an adverse situation. But the reality is that Jainism, Buddhism or even the local folk religion (Hindu) had no connection with the Vedic religious system and it does not have anything to do with it. On the contrary, Vedic religion owes a great debt to folk religion and Samana religion; however, as Bronkhorst points out, it was never accepted by the Vedic theologians.

 

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Ref.:

1.     THE JAIN AGAMS, Author in Hindi : Shri Dalsukh Malvania, Translated by: Dr. Nagin Shah.

2.     Jambudvipaprajnaptisutra, Translation - Dr. Chhaganlal G. Shastri, Agam Publication Committee, 1960.

3.     The Kalpa sutra, and Nava tatva: two works illustrative of the Jain religion and philosophy By Bhadrabāhu, 6th cent; Stevenson, J. (John), 1848, London, Printed for the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain.

4.     Kalpasutra 211, p. 171, Shri Kalpasutra Mul,  Hindi translation by Muni Manakya Maharaj, Publisher- Sobhagamal Harkavat, 1916.

5.     Ibid

6.      “Mahapuran ( Adi Purana )” By Bhagavat Jinasenacarya, Edited by Pandit Panna Lal Jain, Bharatiya Jnanpith, Kashi, 1944, p. 8, p. 10.

7.     Ibid, p. 58

8.     Hinduism- how it originated and developed in ancient times by Subhash Dutta-Roy, 2018, published by Power Publishers, Kolkata p. 35-36.

9.     The Background and Tradition, Ch-2 in “The Jain Art and Architecture”, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Vol. I, 1974.

10.                        On Mahavira and His Predecessors in the Indian Antiquary, IX, 1880, By Hermann Jacobi, 158-163.

11.                         Indian philosophy, Volume 1By Radhakrishnan, S. (Sarvepalli), Publisher- London, G. Allen & Unwin, Ltd.; New York, The Macmillan Company, 1923, Pg. 287.

12.                        . “Jainism” in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (Vol. II, pp. 465-74.

13.                         Antiquity of Jainism by Professor Mahavir Saran Jain. This article is available at https://fdocuments.in/document/antiquity-of-jainism.html